Background [1],[3],[4],[8]
Colombia is a nation located in the northwest corner of South America, bordering Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil. The history of the indigenous people groups prior to European colonization is largely unknown. In the 1520s Spaniards came across the Atlantic and began forming colonies in this region. Spanish rule continued until 1819 when Simón Bolívar defeated the colonialists and united present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Panama into the Republic of Gran Colombia. Regions of this large republic gradually broke off to form their own states. During the mid-1900s two influential political parties emerged--the Liberal Party and the Conservative party--which led eventually to a civil war in 1840. The republic went through decades of changing governments and civil strife, losing the area that is modern-day Panama in 1903. Called the Republic of Colombia, the nation went through another civil war from 1899 to 1903 which claimed about 120,000 lives. A Conservative government resulted, staying in power until 1930. That year, a Liberal president was elected. By 1946, civil insurrection, mostly concentrated in rural areas, erupted into a period now called La Violencia. Approximately 300,000 lives were lost during this time. In 1958 the government decided to put down the chaos with governmental force. The Liberal and Conservative parties jointly formed the National Front, also banning other parties from government participation. Guerrilla groups rose up in response to the increased governmental pressure. Organizations such as the National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) instigated global drug trades centered in Colombia, bringing the nation into a period of guerrilla warfare, widespread violence, and political instability through the early 2000s. The national murder and kidnapping rates soared and, by 1989, homicide was the leading cause of death in Colombia. The effects of this violent period are still felt in Colombia, having killed hundreds of thousands and led to millions of refugees. In 2004, the United Nations declared that the violent drug wars in Colombia comprised the worst humanitarian crisis in the Western Hemisphere. The 2000s saw extensive periods of violence, high profile kidnappings, and failed peace talks. However, peace talks that began in 2012 between President Juan Manuel Santos and FARC rebels reached a point of compromise in mid-2016. The initial deal was voted against by a popular referendum in October of 2016, many Colombians feeling the deal was too lenient on FARC militants. A revised deal was passed by the Colombian government two months later and the nation is currently in the process of working out what this new status quo will look like as rebels surrender weapons and the country sees what the future has in store for them. Today Colombia is a diverse nation, heavily influenced by both its indigenous and colonial histories. About 84% of Colombians are mestizo or white, with the next largest racial demographic being Afro-Colombians at 10%. In terms of religion, 90% of Colombians are Roman Catholic. About 95% of the population is literate, with no significant difference between male and female literacy rates. Colombia has the 32nd highest GDP in the world and is home to a rapidly diversifying and expanding economy. Colombia’s history of violence unfortunately has meant that some issues such as infrastructure, healthcare, and environmental sustainability have not always received sufficient governmental resources. Hopefully with peace talks continuing, efforts can be refocused on improving Colombian livelihoods and infrastructures. Biodiversity conservation is an issue of pressing concern in particular. Colombia is home to 10% of all of the Earth’s species, making it the second most biodiverse nation on the planet. Ecosystems range from tropical rain forest to mountains to open savannah. Ironically, many conservationists believe that the armed conflicts have indirectly led to a slow rate of environmental degradation in Colombia. This is a key moment in time for Colombia’s diverse ecosystems, as rural people previously wary of venturing into guerrilla-held forests now utilize them for agriculture, timber, and other resources. Researchers worry that the rate of deforestation will increase now that peace talks have shown great results. Biodiversity conservation is an issue that Colombia should address now and not later. Rural people deserve every opportunity to break out of cyclical poverty and gain the benefits of economic development. Doing so in a sustainable manner is of the utmost importance not only for the country’s thousands upon thousands of species but also for the long-term quality of life for Colombians. My project, as of now, is an open book. I will spend my first week or two in Puerto Lopez (a small town in the Los Llanos region) absorbing and processing information, while also just becoming acquainted with my surroundings. After that I will propose, plan, and carry out my own research project. It will likely involve some baseline biodiversity assessments in the area along with surveys and interviews of the local people to analyze views on biodiversity in the area. My project hopefully will help my research mentors understand one more facet of socio-environmental relations in the region. Breaking News [2],[5],[7],[9] Death toll rises to 273 and climbing in Colombia flooding (Chicago Tribune) Over the weekend of April 1, 2016 three different rivers near the Colombian town of Mocoa surged to flooding levels. Water swept through the city of 40,000 people, moving mud, trees, and other debris across the city. Property was destroyed by the floodwaters and unfortunately hundreds of citizens have died. The majority have been identified but some bodies still remained without an identity. Many families still had missing relatives, lost somewhere in the floodwaters, their status wholly unknown. Colombian President Juan Manual Santos declared a state of “economic, social and ecological emergency” in the area. At the time this article was written, teams were still searching for missing persons. This event was definitely a shock to the whole of Colombia. The event received international attention and I could tell from the articles I read that the whole country mourned for the communities in Mocoa. This was definitely an anomalous event that affected the emotions of the whole country. Though Mocoa is far from where I will be working, it is of the utmost importance I remember that the whole country has been affected by this natural disaster. Link to original article: http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/ct-colombia-deadly-flood-search-20170402-story.html Colombia’s FARC rebels give up guns in disarmament camps (AOL News) The six-month peace process between the Colombian government and FARC rebels has begun. Guerillas are in the process of handing over thousands of weapons at 26 sites run by the United Nations. The weapons surrender process is set to be finished by June of this year. FARC rebels are set to reside in these camps as judicial proceedings lay out prison sentences and amnesties alike. The conditions in the camps have generated some controversy as many rebels claim the facilities do not match agreed upon standards. The Colombian government is at work erecting each camp and is utilizing rebels in the construction process. Only a small minority of rebels have refused entirely to surrender their arms. This is such a momentous time for Colombia. I am intrigued to be in the country as the peace process continues. I recognize it is also a time of varying levels of uncertainty. How the rebels assimilate and how some are punished is and will be of ongoing controversy in Colombian society. I just need to be respectful of all sides and always remember I am an outsider to these proceedings. Link to original article: https://www.aol.com/article/news/2017/03/31/colombias-farc-rebels-give-up-guns-in-disarmament-camps/22020673/ 13,000 acres of cloud forest now protected in Colombia (Mongabay.com) In Colombia, a large swath of the cloud forest ecoregion was set aside for protection. Cloud forests are one of the most diverse ecosystems in the world and this site, found in the Colombian Andes, is home to thousands of plant and animal species, many of them found nowhere else in the world. Cacica Noria Regional Protected Area, as the site is now called, reserves one tenth of the area for sustainable human development, with the rest under strict protection. Mining and logging have been threats to this area for decades and the hope is that new legal protection prevents people from exploiting the natural resources within the park. It is encouraging to hear that conservation zones are being formed in such critical areas. Colombia definitely is a country that is well-aware of its rich ecology. The issues are finding enough funding for conservation and for enforcement in rural areas. The fact that this park was so carefully placed in an area of critical conservation concern gives me hope that other areas like that will be set aside for protection. Of course I know that one exemplary case study is not representative of the norm necessarily. There is so much environmental degradation occurring in Colombia and there are so many key areas that will never be made into parks. This means that the work I am helping with this summer will always be important. Link to original article: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/13000-acres-of-cloud-forest-now-protected-in-colombia/ Villagers vote to ban “La Colosa” Gold Mining Project in Colombia (Mongabay.com) Residents of Cajamarca--a municipality in Colombia--voted in March against the further development of a mining project in their vicinity. The project, run by AngloGold Ashanti (the world’s 3rd largest gold producer), would involve blasting approximately 1,257 million tons of rock for 33 million ounces of gold. This would be one of the largest gold mines in the world. Environmental concerns include acid runoff, clearcutting, water contamination, and much more. The overwhelming dissent (98% of residents voted against) does not mean that the project is legally extirpated; there are still legal battles ongoing. As AngloGold Ashanti has rights to mine in the majority of departments (equivalents to a U.S. state), it is clear that these fights are not over. However, the precedent set by the irate citizens of Cajamarca is encouraging for socio-environmental relations. As with many nations, the story goes that an outside corporation comes in to exploit the environment in a way detrimental to the local people. The story goes this way in Colombia too. That these conversations are getting national attention in Colombia is important. Too often urban citizens think far too little about the issues facing those in rural areas where such companies work. The urbanites should not ignore these issues. It is also encouraging to note that environmentalism seems to be becoming more common and “hip” in Colombia. These sentiments may not always carry the name of “environmentalism” but anyone who wants to protect their natural resources from exploitation and their homes from pollution shares the same sentiments. I am interested to get to Colombia and compare how those in Bogota view such issues versus those in Puerto Lopez in rural settings. Link to original article: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/villagers-vote-to-ban-la-colosa-gold-mining-project-in-colombia/ Policy Analysis [6] Environmental degradation and pollution have been pressing matters in Colombia that continue to evolve in scope and impact. World Bank analyses done in 2007 and 2012 concluded that the greatest environmental problems occurring in Colombia are inadequate access to clean water, urban air pollution, indoor air pollution, natural disasters, and land degradation. These are concerns that cost human lives every year. For example, there are 5,000 preventable deaths annually due to air pollution, and 1,600 a year due to poor water sanitation. These issues affect both urbanites and rural populations alike. Environmental degradation is a problem that Colombia as a whole must tackle for it leaves no one unaffected. The nation’s history of violent conflict has had a hand in shaping Colombia’s environmental history. Guerrilla groups often take up refuge in heavily forested areas, clear-cutting wood to build settlements. What is surprising to many, however, is that many researchers believe the guerilla groups have actually slowed the rate of environmental degradation. Their ominous presence in the forests (and implicit ownership of the area) have kept rural Colombians from fully utilizing the natural resources there. With peace talks being carried out with success, experts are actually concerned the rate of unsustainable land usage will rapidly increase. In terms of the law and policy, one of the biggest issues is land inequality. Colombia has one of the highest rates of concentrated land ownership in the world, meaning that a very low percentage of Colombians own a very high percentage of Colombian land. Again, the drug cartels and their continued presence have contributed greatly to this pattern. This causes rural people to flee to the cities where they often find themselves only able to afford housing in urban slums. These slums have different but equally potent threats, of both a social and environmental nature. Research has shown again and again that violence in the countryside is linked to land inequality. Environmental policies in Colombia are controlled by a host of government offices. The Colombian National Environmental System, created in 1993, operates under a principle of decentralization. Its key department is the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development, tasked with regulating environmental protocols and sustainable resource usage. There are 33 regional environmental offices and 3 urban environmental offices that carry out the enforcement of these regulations. The last piece of this puzzle are the 5 government research institutes that provide scientific data to the Ministry. International cooperation is a large priority in the Ministry and Colombia has fostered many partnerships with international organizations. One key piece of legislation that speaks to environmental issues is the National Development Plan (for 2014-2018). This plan includes a Green Growth policy with major tenets that include emphasizing sustainable development as a major goal of national politics, holding localized offices more accountable for policy enforcement, using taxes and tax exemptions to promote sustainable practices, being aware of how these legislations may disproportionately affect poor populations, defining more precisely the roles of the various environmental agencies, concentrating on mining as a key source of socio-environmental conflict, and promoting better scientific communication with the public on such issues. By looking at these foundational and far-reaching policies, we can see that the government of Colombia is prioritizing sustainable development in a way that is well aware of its nation’s resources, regional differences, and history. Land inequality, enforcement of existing laws, and unsustainable economic development are all threats to the environment. Whether the policies of Colombia can keep up with the rate of environmental damage will become clear over time. There is much to be hopeful for and also much to fear. This is a key time for the Earth as a whole, and Colombia has its fair share of the responsibility of protecting the planet. Local Faculty Connection I had the problem of professors not emailing me back. I understand they are busy and this sort of meeting may be very low on their priority list. However, I took the initiative of interviewing a student, Mackenzie Kubik, who has been to Latin America and currently does research with a political science professor who specializes in Latin American politics and development, specifically how gender plays a role in these processes. One of the overarching themes of our conversation was how critical a role the United States has played in the evolution of political and economic systems in Latin America. We are taught in most American schools how America spent countless funds upholding democratic principles in the region, and more complete history classes even challenge this idea by explaining how U.S. funds have also directly and indirectly led to the deaths of thousands of Latin Americans. Many of these projects are ongoing and Mackenzie specifically mentioned how NAFTA has led to much exploitation of workers and economic-based violence. I need to remember that the United States may not have the best reputation in Colombia, and that this is understandable and justifiable for many reasons. In terms of sustainable development, Mackenzie felt that the short-term future would be bleak but that further in time sustainable development will be thriving in the region. She said that there are often cycles of conservative and liberal government in specific Latin American countries, and that eventually a period of moderate governments often result. She feels that these governments will prioritize sustainability and environmentalism. Directing the conversation back to the foci of her research advisor, Mackenzie discussed how women often disproportionately feel the effects of unsustainable development and economic growth. She spoke of some examples of impoverished women virtually enslaved in industries (both legal and illicit) to keep up with rapid economic growth in the region. Gender-based violence is common and I was reminded how any model of sustainable development should ensure that both men and women are involved at every level of organization. This interview reminded me that the history of Colombia assuredly does not match up exactly with anything I have researched online. There are always legitimate perspectives and nuances that are ignored or glossed over by popular historical records. Of course I cannot go to Colombia and forget any historical context I know, but I do need to remember that my idea of Latin American socio-political history may be changed. This is a key takeaway I hope to get from this summer. I am excited to gain experiential knowledge in some fields outside of my area of study in ecology. Reflection This project appealed to me initially because the project title contained the word “conservation.” This jumped out at me because this is the career field I have wanted to pursue for as long as I can remember. I read the actual description of the project and saw that it involved real, in-the-field, science-based conservation. For the sake of honesty, I must admit the country was irrelevant to me in deciding on this program. I probably would agree to do conservation work for a summer most anywhere in the world. Then, upon having to apply to the program, I researched Colombia and its biodiversity and I realized it really is an exemplary place to study socio-environmental relations and biodiversity conservation. I wish I had been able to find out more about endangered species conservation in my research for this paper. Most of the resources I found delved into detail about environmentalism as a broad idea. Wildlife conservation is a subset within this (though still an immensely broad field). I wonder if perhaps Colombia has an equivalent to the United States “Endangered Species Act” that I am unaware of, for example. There are so many endangered species there who need infrastructure for protection. A specific topic I’d love to delve deeper into is human-wildlife conflict. This area of research (specifically how animals living near human settlements often change their behaviors and life histories) has gradually become the topic I am chiefly interested in my field and will likely try to study in graduate school. From my perceptions of my project as of now, I think I will have plenty of opportunities to learn about such in Colombia. I am excited for this summer and what I can learn from this experience while aiding conservation and development efforts. Works Cited 1. Barras, Henry Siqueira. "Colombia's Peace Could Pressure the Environment."Mongabay.com. Mongabay, 23 Jan. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 2. Cobb, Julia Symmes. "Former Rebel Group Fighters Hand over Thousands of Weapons."AOL News. AOL, 31 Mar. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 3. Chausovsky, Eugene. "Colombia: The Space Between War and Peace." Stratfor Worldview. Startfor Enterprises, LLC, 9 Apr. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 4. "Colombia Timeline." BBC News. BBC, 14 Aug. 2012. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 5. Ebus, Bram. "Villagers Vote to Ban 'La Colosa' Gold Mining Project in Colombia."Mongabay.com. Mongabay, 27 Mar. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 6. Garcia, Jorge H., and Daniel Slunge. Environment and Climate Change Management: Perspectives for Post-Conflict Colombia. Sida Environmental Helpdesk. Sida's Helpdesk for Environment and Climate Change, 8 Dec. 2015. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 7. Howell, Lillie. "13,000 Acres of Cloud Forest Now Protected in Colombia." Mongabay.com. Mongabay, 29 Mar. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 8. "The World Factbook: Colombia." Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 12 Jan. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017. 9. Tobella, Alba. "Death Toll Rises to 273 and Climbing in Colombia Flooding."Chicagotribune.com. Chicago Tribune, 3 Apr. 2017. Web. 21 Apr. 2017.
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Ben JohnsonI am a junior at Rice University majoring in Ecology & Evolutionary Biology and minoring in Environmental Studies Archives
June 2017
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